The Inner Solar System: The Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars | Date: 28 April 2011, 04:12
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The Inner Solar System: The Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars (An Explorer's Guide to the Universe)
By Erik Gregersen
* Publisher: Rosen Education Service
* Number Of Pages: 224
* Publication Date: 2009-12-20
* ISBN-10 / ASIN: 1615300120
* ISBN-13 / EAN: 9781615300129
Introduction:
Ancient people around the globe
once believed the Moon, Sun, planets,
and stars were gods and goddesses,
demons and angels revolving around
Earth, the centre of their universe. Little
did they know that Earth is a mere speck
in a vast universe. It took many centuries
for people to realize that Earth isn’t
even the centre of our solar system. It is,
however, one of the components of
what’s known as the inner solar system—
comprised of the Sun, four terrestrial
planets, and the moons that orbit
them—which is examined thoroughly in
this book.
With the development of modern
astronomy and the advent of scientifi c
tools, particularly the telescope, scientists
began examining the solar system
and theorizing about our place in it. The
solar system and the space just beyond it
form the extent of our physical reach in
the universe. Even with manned and
unmanned spacecraft, we may never
explore farther than the outer boundary
of the solar system. So scientists observe
and study our solar system in order to
learn more about the universe itself.
Much of our knowledge comes from the
celestial bodies within the inner solar
system, but there is still much to learn.
Our solar system includes the Sun,
eight planets (formerly nine), many moons,
Introduction 10
Chapter 1: Composition and Origin
of the Solar System 19comets, asteroids, and traces of gas and
dust known as interplanetary medium.
Although the solar system still presents
mysteries, scientists have made great
strides over the past 400 years in explaining
its origins. The commonly accepted
explanation today says that billions of
years ago a massive cloud of gas and
dust began to collapse in on itself due
to gravity. The cloud began to rotate as
it collapsed, forming a disk shape.
Nuclear reactions began to occur at the
centre due to the immense heat and
pressure, and the Sun began to form.
Material in the rest of the disk slowly
collided and merged together to form
planets and moons.
The outer planets are much bigger
than the inner planets and are largely
made up of gases. From Jupiter out, the
temperature is so cold that water exists
mainly as ice. Large amounts of ice
joined together when the outer planets
formed, giving them more mass and
greater gravitational pull. They drew in
large amounts of hydrogen, helium, and
other gases, creating “gas giants.”
However, water in the inner solar system
remained liquid, allowing the inner
planets to become much smaller and
rockier. These ideas about the creation
of the solar system are widely supported
by many scientists.......................................................
Orbits 19
Planets and Their Moons 20
The Interplanetary Medium 21
Origin of the Solar System 23
The Kant-Laplace Nebular Hypothesis 24
Modern Ideas 25
Formation of the Solar Nebula 26
Differentiation into Inner and Outer Planets 26
Compositional Data for Selected Solar
System Objects 28
Later Stages of Planetary Accretion 29
Solution to the Angular Momentum Puzzle 29
Chapter 2: The Sun 31
Physical Properties 31
Energy Generation and Transport 33
Evolution 35
Helioseismology 35
The Solar Atmosphere 36
The Chromosphere 38
Revelations in the Dark 40
The Corona 41
Solar Wind 42
Solar Activity 43
Sunspots 43
Prominences 47
Flares 49
Solar-Terrestrial Effects 51
History of Solar Observations 52
Chapter 3: Mercury 56
Planetary Data for Mercury 59
Basic Astronomical Data 59
Observational Challenges 60
Orbital and Rotational Effects 61
Mercury in Tests of Relativity 62
Mariner 10 and Messenger 63
The Atmosphere 63
The Magnetic Field and Magnetosphere 65
Character of the Surface 66
Caloris Basin and Surrounding Region 68
Plains 68
Scarps 70
Surface Composition 72
Mercury’s Formation 73
Later Development 74
Chapter 4: Venus 76
Basic Astronomical Data 77
Planetary Data for Venus 80
The Atmosphere 81
Interaction with the Solar Wind 84
Character of the Surface 84
Surface Composition 85
Surface Features 86
Features Due to Tectonic Activity 88
Belts and Rifts 88
Coronae and Tesserae 90
Volcanic Features 93
Impact Craters 97
Interior Structure and Geologic Evolution 100
Observations from Earth 101
Spacecraft Exploration 103
Chapter 5: Earth 107
Basic Planetary Data 109
The Astronomical Unit 110
Planetary Data for Earth 112
The Atmosphere 113
The Hydrosphere 116
The Outer Shell 117
The Interior 120
The Geomagnetic Field and Magnetosphere 121
Development of Earth’s Structure and
Composition 123
Accretion of the Early Earth 123
Effects of Planetesimal Impacts 124
Planetary Differentiation 125
Earth Impacts 126
Objects That Pose a Threat 128
Frequency of Impacts 130
The Tunguska Event 132
NEO Search Programs 132
Determining the Hazard Potential of an NEO 134
Defending Earth from a Colliding Object 135
Chapter 6: The Moon 136
Distinctive Features 138
Mascons 139
Principal Characteristics of the
Earth-Moon System 139
Properties of the Moon and the
Earth-Moon System 140
Motions of the Moon 144
The Atmosphere 145
The Lunar Surface 145
Eff ects of Impacts and Volcanism 147
Small-Scale Features 150
Notable Surface Features 151
Lunar Rocks and Soil 154
Main Groupings 156
The Lunar Interior 157
Structure and Composition 157
Internal Activity of the Past and Present 158
Origin and Evolution 158
Lunar Exploration 160
Early Studies 160
History of Lunar Observation and Exploration 161
Exploration by Spacecraft 163
First Robotic Missions 163
Apollo to the Present 164
Lunar Resources 169
Chapter 7: Eclipses 172
Phenomena Observed During Eclipses 173
Lunar Eclipse Phenomena 173
Solar Eclipse Phenomena 173
Occultations 175
Transits of Mercury and Venus 176
The Geometry of Eclipses, Occultations,
and Transits 177
Eclipses of the Sun 177
Eclipses of the Moon 178
The Frequency of Solar and Lunar Eclipses 178
Cycles of Eclipses 179
Prediction and Calculation of Solar and
Lunar Eclipses 180
Eclipse Research Activities 182
Solar Research 182
Discovery of Helium 183
Support for the General Theory of
Relativity 183
Temperature of the Corona 184
Lunar Research 185
Eclipses in History 185
Literary and Historical References 187
Chinese 187
Assyrian 190
Babylonian 191
Jewish 192
Greek 192
Roman 194
Medieval European 195
Medieval Islamic 197
Uses of Eclipses for Chronological Purposes 199
Uses of Eclipses for Astronomical Purposes 201
Chapter 8: Mars 204
Basic Astronomical Data 206
Planetary Data for Mars 207
Early Telescopic Observations 208
The Canals of Mars 209
Mars as Seen from Earth 210
Surface Features 210
Polar Regions 210
Transient Atmospheric Phenomena 211
The Atmosphere 212
Basic Atmospheric Data 212
Composition and Surface Pressure 213
Composition of the Martian Atmosphere 213
Atmospheric Structure 215
Meteorology and Atmospheric Dynamics 216
Character of the Surface 217
Southern Cratered Highlands 219
Sparsely Cratered Plains 222
Surface Composition 222
Valleys and Lakes 223
Outflow Channels and Oceans 223
Valles Marineris 224
Tharsis and Elysium 225
Olympus Mons 226
Polar Sediments, Ground Ice, and Glaciers 227
Notable Surface Features 228
Chryse Planitia 228
Hellas 229
Nirgal Vallis 229
Syrtis Major 229
Utopia Planitia 230
Vastitas Borealis 230
The Interior 230
Meteorites from Mars 231
Martian Moons 232
Phobos 233
Moons of Mars 233
Deimos 234
Spacecraft Exploration 235
The Question of Life on Mars 237
Glossary 239
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