Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems
| Date: 21 April 2011, 02:28
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Contents
11. Map Language 1-23
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Mapas Model
1.2.1 Spatial Elements
1.2.2 Terminology
1.3 Classification of Maps
1.4 Map Scale
1.5 Spatial Referencing System
1.6 Map Projections
1.6.1 Grouping of Map Projections
1.7 Commonly used Map Projections and their Comparison
1.7.1 Mercator
1.7.2 Transverse Mercator
1.7.3 Oblique Mercator
1.7.4 Polyconic Projection
1.7.5 Lambert Confcal Orthomorphic Projection
1.8 Grid Systems
1.8.1 Lambert Grid for India
1.8.2 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid
1.9 Computer in Map Production
1.10 Digital Database in a GIS
1.10.1' Digitiser Units Vs Real World Coordinates
1.11 Linkage of GIS to Remote Sensing
(xiv) Contents
2. Remote Sensing - Basic Principles 24-54
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Electromagnetic Remote Sensing Process
2.3 Physics of Radiant Energy
2.3.1 Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
2.3.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.4 Energy Source and its Characteristics
2.5 Atmospheric Interactions with Electromagnetic Radiation
2.5.1 Atmospheric Properties
2.5.2 Absorption of Ozone
2.5.3 Atmospheric Effects on Spectral Response Patterns
2.6 Energy Interactions with Earth's Surface Materials
2.6.1 Spectral Reflectance Curves
2.7 Cossine Law
3. Microwave Remote Sensing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Radar Principle
3.3 Factors Affecting Microwave Measurements
3.3.1 Surface Roughness
3.3.2 Radar Scattering Mechanism
3.4 Radar Wavebands
3.5 Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) systems
3.6 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
3.7 Interaction Between Microwaves and Earth's Surface
3.7:1 Speckle Noise
3.7.2 Backscattered Radar Intensity
3.8 Interpreting SAR Images
3.9 Geometrical Characteristics
3.9.1 Slope Foreshortening
3.9.2 Layover
3.9.3 Aspect
3.9.4 Radar Shadow
Contents
4. Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Satellite System Parameters
4.2.1 Instrumental Parameters
4.2.2 Viewing Parameters
4.3 Sensor Parameters
4.3.1 Spatial Resolution
4.3.2 Spectral Resolution
4.3.3 Radiometric Resolution
4.4 Imaging Sensor Systems
4.4.1 Multispectral Imaging Sensor Systems
4.4.2 Thermal Sensing Systems
4.4.3 Microwave Image Systems
4.5 Earth Resources Satellites
4.5.1 Landsat Satellite Programme
4.5.2 SPOT Satellite Programme
4.5.3 Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS)
4.5.4 AEM Satellites
4.6 Meteorological Satellites
4.6.1 NOAA Satellites
4 6.2 GOES Satellites
4.6.3 NIMBUS Satellites
4.6.4 Meteosat Series
4.7 Satellites Carrying Microwave Sensors
4.7.1 Seasat
4.7.2 European Remote Sensing Satellite-1
4.7 3 Radarsat
4.8 OCEANSAT -1 (IRS-P4)
4.9 IKONOS Satellite Series
4.10 Latest Trends ·in Remote Sensing Platforms and sensors
4.10.1 Quick Bird
4.10.2 Cartosat-1
4.10.3 Resourcesat-1
(xv)
74-123
(xvi) Contents
5. Visual Image Interpretation 124-156
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Pictoral Data Products
5.3 Image interpretation strategy
5.3.1 Levels of Interpretation Keys
5.4 Process of Image Interpretation
5.5 Interpretation of Aerial Photo
5.6 General procedure for photo interpretation
5.6.1 Preliminary Stage
5.6.2 Detailed Examination
5.6.3 I nterpretation Stage
5.6.4 Compilation Stage
5.7 Three dimensional interpretation Method
5.7.1 Stereoscopic Depth Perception
5.7.2 Stereo Scope
5.8 Basic elements of Image Interpretation
5.9 Application of Aerial Photo Interpretation
5.10 Interpretation of Satellite Imagery
5.11 Key Elements of Visual Image Interpretation
5.11.1 Visual Inter Pretatlon of Topographic Features Based on Reflection
Characterstics of Images is Given Table 15.1 Below.
5.11.2 Drainage Pattern and Texture
5.11.3 Erosion
5.11.4 Image Tone
5.11.5 Vegetation and Land Use
5.12 Concept of Converging Evidence
6. Digital Image Processing 157-218
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Basic Character of Digital Image
6.3 Preprocessing
6.3 1 Geometric Correction Methods
6.3.2 Radiometric Correction Methods
6.3.3 Atmospheric Correction Methods
Contents
7.
6.4 Image Registration
6.4.1 Conversion of Geographical Coordinates to Conical
Orthomorphic Coordinates
6.4.2 Transformation of Conical Orthomorphic Coordinates to
Drgitallmagery Coordinates
6.5 Image Enhancement Techniques
6.5.1 Contrast Enhancement
6.6 Spatial Filtering Techniques
6.6.1 Low Pass Filters
6.6.2 High Pass Filters
6.6.3 Filtering for Edge Enhancement
6.7 Image Transformations
6.7.1 NDVI Transformation
6.7.2 PCA Transformation
6.8 Image Classification
6.8.1 Supervised Classification
6.8.2 Trammg Dataset
6.8.3 Unsupervised Classification
6.9 Performance Analysis of IRS-bands for Landuse/Landcover
Classification System using Maximum Likelihood Classifier
6.9.1 Classification Methodology
6.9.2 The Landuse and Landcover Classification System
6.9.3 Data Analysis
6.9.4 Classification Accuracy Approach
6.10 Image classification and GIS
Fundamentals of GIS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Roots of GIS
7.3 Overview of Information System
7.4 The Four Ms
7.5 Contribution Disciplines
7.6 GIS Definitions and Terminology
7.6.1 Geographical Entities
7.6.2 Attributes
7.6.3 Topology
7.6.4 Congnitive Models
219-239
(xviii) Contents
7.7 GIS Queries
7.8 GIS Architecture
7.8.1 Components of a GIS
7.8.2 GIS Work Flow
7.9 Theoretical Models of GIS
7.9.1 Functional Elements of GIS
7.9.2 Fundamental Operations of GIS
7.10 Theoretical Framework for GIS
7.11 GIS Categories
7.12 Levels/Scales of Measurem~nt
8. Spatial Data Modelling 240-272
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Stages of GIS Data Modelling
8.3 Graphic Representation of Spatial Data
8.3.1 Raster Data Representation
8.3.2 Vector Data Representation
8.3.3 Spatial Data Models
8.4 Raster GIS Models
8.4.1 Simple Raster Arrays
8.4.2 Hierarchical Raster Structures
8.4.3 Types of Raster GIS Models
8.4.4 Compact Raster Data Models
8.5 Vector GIS Models
8.5.1 Spaghetti Model
8.5.2 Topological Models
8.5.3 Shape File
8.5.4 Compact Vector Data Models
8.6 Comparison of Raster and Vector Models
9. GIS Data Management 273-300
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Data Base Management Systems
9.2.1 Functions of DBMS
9.2.2 Components of DBMS
Contents (xix)
9.3 GIS Data File Management
9.3.1 Simple List
9 3.2 Ordered Sequential Files
9.3.3 Indexed Files
9 3.4 Building GIS Worlds
9.4 Database Models
9.4 1 Hierarchical Database Models
9.4.2 Network Systems
9.4.3 Relational Database Models
9.4.4 Standard Query language (SQl)
9.5 Storage of GIS Data
9.5.1 The Hydrid Data Model
9.5.2 The Integrated Data Model
9.6 Object Based Data Models
9.6.1 Entity-Relationship-Attribute Model
9.6.2 location-Based Representations for Spatlo-Temporal Data
9.6.3 Entity-Based Representations for Spatio-Temporal Data
9.6.4 Time-Based Representations for Spatio-Temporal Data
9.6.5 A Combined Approach for Spatio-Temporal Representation
9.7 Temporal Topology
9.8 Organisational Strategy of DBMS in GIS
10. Data Input and Editing 301-320
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Data Stream
10.2.1 Existing Datasets
10.2.2 Creation of Data
10.3 Data Input Methods
10.3.1 Keyboard Entry
10.3.2 Manual Digitislng
10.3.3 Scanning and Automatic Digitising
11.
10.4 GPS for GIS Data Capture
10.4.1 Capturing Coordinate Data
10.4.2 Advantages of GPS
10.4.3 GPS Data Creation
10.5 Data Editing
10.5.1 Detecting and Correcting Errors
10.5.2 Data Reduction and Generalisation
10.5.3 Edge Matching and Rubber Sheeting
Data Quality Issues
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Components of Data Quality
11.3 Accuracy
11.3.1 Spatial Accuracy
11.3.2 Temporal Accuracy
11.3.3 Attribute Accuracy
11.3.4 Conceptual Accuracy
11.4 Precision and Resolution
11.4.1 Spatial Resolution
11.4.2 Temporal Resolution
11.4.3 Thematic Resolution
11.5 Consistency
11.6 Completeness
11.7 Sources of Error in GIS
11.8 Modelling Errors
11.8.1 Point Data Error Models
11.8.2 Line and Area Data Error Model
11.8.3 Models for Dot and Pixel Counting
11.9 Error Evaluation by Graphical Methods
11.9.1 Metadata Issues
11.9.2 Graphic Design Issu
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